Key Historical Context:

• Persian Period (539–332 BCE): After Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon, he allowed the Jewish exiles to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple, completed in 516 BCE.

• Hellenistic Period (332–167 BCE): Alexander the Great’s conquests brought Greek influence into Jewish life, leading to tensions between Hellenistic and traditional Jewish practices.

• Hasmonean Period (167–63 BCE): The Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire led to a brief period of Jewish independence under the Hasmonean dynasty.

• Roman Period (63 BCE–70 CE): Roman rule began with the conquest of Judea by Pompey, culminating in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE during the Jewish-Roman War.

  
  

Religious and Cultural Developments:

• Synagogues: Emerged as centers for prayer, study, and community life, particularly for Jews in the diaspora.

• Torah and Oral Tradition: Increased emphasis on the study and interpretation of the Torah, laying the groundwork for Rabbinic Judaism.

• Sectarianism: Various Jewish sects developed, each with distinct beliefs and practices:

  • Pharisees: Emphasized oral tradition, legal interpretation, and belief in resurrection.

  • Sadducees: Associated with the priestly class, they rejected oral tradition and focused on Temple rituals.

  • Essenes: A monastic-like community, possibly associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls, emphasizing purity and apocalyptic expectations.

  • Zealots: A militant group that sought to resist Roman rule.

    
    

Key Texts and Literature:

• Septuagint (LXX): The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, widely used in the diaspora.

• Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha: Jewish writings from this period that provide insight into the religious thought and expectations of the time.

• Dead Sea Scrolls: Discovered in Qumran, these texts offer a glimpse into the beliefs, practices, and expectations of some Jewish groups during this era.